1 LOCATION
Present-day Brazil was part of the ancient continent Pangea, a term coined by Alfred Wegener in his 1920 book - including, most visible evidence of this split is in the similar shape of the coastlines of modern-day Brazil and West Africa. According to the probable distribution of the supercontinent, present-day Brazil had land connections with its present-day neighbors and with several West African countries, from Sierra Leone to Namibia. From 550 to 180 M years ago, Brazil was part of Gondwanaland, the southern continent, maintaining its same neighborhood in Pangaea. This continent follows a set of high-intensity events of the Neoproterozoic period, called the Brasiliano Orogeny Wikipedia). A high interest map for similar geology of northern South America and W Africa is available in Steel Club (SEE).
2 TOPOLOGY
The term topology in the geography of a place is the study of the relations associated with the position of a political unit on the globe, such as a country or a state. It examines, among other aspects, the antipodes, the parallels and meridians that cross the territory (especially the main ones along its extent), the climatic zones of the region, its extreme points, time zones, and the distances between these elements and its neighboring areas.
Situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere, the three latitudinal extremes (west, mainland east, over east) of the country are west Greenwich. Crossed by the Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn, the northern end of the country is in the Northern Hemisphere, and the southern end is in the southern temperate region. Brazil is the longest country in the world, spanning 4,395 km from north to south, and the only country in the world that has the equator and a tropical line (Tropic of Capricorn) running through it. For many curiosities for Brazilian territory, see Lista de Extremos do Brasil (Wikipedia).
EXTREMES
The distances of the latitudinal and longitudinal extremes are almost equivalent, with a difference of only 53 km, less than 2% of both (4,379 km N/S, 4,323 km E/W). Interestingly, the continental E and W extremes are almost at the same latitude (0º22'48'' difference), which makes the segment that connects them almost coincident with the largest parallel in the national territory (approx. 7º21' S) and also the longest 'straight' line inside Brazilian territory. The longest meridian in the national territory (approx. 53º29' W) is approximately 3,832 km long and is quite distinct from the segment that joins the N and S extremes.
N: Monte Caburaí, Roraima (RR, 05°16′10″ N; for details inside a expedition, see Amazonas Abenteuer) - the extreme north of Brazil is the 10th most southern of all those in the Northern Hemisphere (SEE). E (continental): Ponta do Seixas, Paraíba (PB, 34°47′34″ W) - easternmost continental part of Brazil is the 14th easternmost of all the countries that have it west of Greenwich (SEE), and the easternmost of the Americas. E (over): Ilha do Sul, Ilhas de Martim Vaz, Espírito Santo (ES, 28°50′51″ W). S: Arroio Chuí, Rio Grande do Sul (RS, 33°45′03″ S) - the extreme south of Brazil is the 7th most southern for a sovereign country (SEE). W: Serra do Divisor, Acre (AC, 73°58′59″ W) — Brazilian extreme west is the 23rd most westerly of all (SEE).
ZONES
Northern Hemisphere cover in Brazil 601,427 km² (7,062 % of total area), in approximate values in manual measurement of Brazil in Line in Google Earth polygon tool, are in Amazonas (140,600 km² in western portion, 3,960 km² in eastern portion), Roraima (201,347 km²), Pará (128,234 km²) and Amapá (127,286 km²). With same metodology, temperate zone cover a very similar area, 600,935 km² (7,056% of country area) in partial São Paulo (48,319 km²), Mato Grosso do Sul (8,250 km²), and Paraná (167,272 km²), and over Santa Catarina (95,346 km²) and Rio Grande do Sul states (281,748 km²).
POLE OF INACESSIBILITY
In South America, the continental Pole of Inaccessibility is in Brazil at 14.05°S 56.85°W, near Arenápolis, Mato Grosso, 1,504 km (935 mi) from the nearest coastline (Wikipedia); for technical details, see Castellanos & lombardo (Scottish Geographical Journal, 2007).
BRAZILIAN EXTREMES IN MAINLAND, LENGHTS OF IMPORTANT LINES, ZONES, AND OTHER REMARKABLE POINTS
ANTIPODES
Most of the World has no antipodes on land. The exception is for South America, East and Southeast Asia, Antarctica and the Arctic region. Much of the Canadian islands, Greenland and a fraction of Siberia are antipodes of Antarctica, including the Antarctic Peninsula. A very significant portion from China is antipodal to Argentina and Chile, Peru antipodal to Indochina, Ecuador antipodal to peninsular Malaysia and Colombia antipodal to Sumatra. Sulawesi is antipode of Guyana and Pará state in N Brazil, while Borneo and the Philippines are antipodes of Brazil, in the states of Mato Grosso, Pará, Roraima and Amazonas.
DISTANCES
The northernmost point of Brazil is closer to Canada, at the height of Nova Scotia, than to the southernmost points of Brazil (4,262 km ✕ 4,379 km). Rio Grande do Norte is closer to Africa, at the height of Guinea-Bissau (2,768 km), than to cities like Curitiba or Florianópolis.
TIME ZONES
Brazil has four time zones. The first is UTC-2, which includes only a few Brazilian islands, most notably Fernando de Noronha. The second time zone is UTC-3, covering most of the country, including the capital, Brasília. It encompasses the NE, SE, and S regions, as well as parts of the N and WC regions, and is the country’s official time zone. The third time zone is UTC-4, one hour behind Brasília, including parts of the North (RR, RO, and part of AM) and Center-West (MS, MT) regions. The fourth and last time zone is UTC-5, two hours behind Brasília, covering only the state of Acre and a small portion of Amazonas (Mundo Educação).
Worldwide, countries with four or more time zones include France (12), Russia (11), USA (11), Australia (9), UK (9), Canada (6), Denmark (5), New Zealand (5), Brazil (4 — 9th), and Mexico (4). However, when considering only the time zones of the contiguous territory, the list includes Russia (11), the United States (6), Australia (5), Canada (6), Brazil (4 - 5th), and Mexico (4), these tied (Wikipedia).
LINES IN SEA
From the Brazilian coast, going east, there is the African coast, with Amapá facing Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, from Amapá to Rio Grande do Norte all facing Gabon (except a portion defront Congo/Brazzaville), a small fraction of Rio Grande do Norte facing Congo/Kinshasa, Rio Grande do Norte to Bahia all facing Angola, from Bahia to Santa Catarina facing Namibia, and from there to Chuí, facing South Africa.
FACING MAPS BETWEEN SOUTH AMERICA AND AFRICA; FOR ALL COLECCTION, SEE RELATIVELY INTERESTING
3 SPACE
Due to its geographical location, Brazil holds one of the most privileged positions on the planet for rocket launches, offering several advantages. The primary one is that the Earth's rotational speed near the Equator boosts the propulsion of launch vehicles, significantly reducing the consumption of propellant fuel and cutting costs by up to 30%. This is also because the Earth is an oblate spheroid (that is, flattened at the poles), which means the Equator lies closer to space and farther from the Earth's center, reducing both the travel distance and the gravitational force that must be overcome to launch an object. The Alcântara Launch Center (CLA), one of the country's two spaceports, is located in the state of Maranhão, near the town of Alcântara, in the northern part of the state (Tecmundo/2023).
The South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) is a striking irregularity in Earth’s magnetic field, characterized by a significant reduction in field strength over a vast region spanning the South Atlantic Ocean, from South America to southern Africa. This anomaly, where the magnetic field intensity drops to approximately one-third of the global average, affects low-Earth orbit satellites, spacecraft, and scientific research, offering a unique lens into the planet’s geomagnetic dynamics. For life on Earth’s surface, the SAA has negligible direct effects. The atmosphere, with a mass equivalent to a 10-meter-thick water layer, effectively shields against cosmic and solar radiation, even in the SAA’s weaker magnetic zone. Populations in affected regions, such as Brazil, Argentina, and South Africa, experience no measurable health risks, as radiation levels remain within safe limits at sea level. The anomaly’s influence is confined to higher altitudes, where atmospheric density decreases, posing no threat to ground-dwelling organisms (News Space Economy).
The Curuçá River Event was an impact event that occurred in the Brazilian state of Amazonas on August 13, 1930, similar to the Tunguska event that took place in Siberia in 1908. The event was likely caused by a cosmic body falling in the region of the Curuçá River, in the municipality of Atalaia do Norte, Amazonas. At the time, local riverine communities and Indigenous people reported seeing 'fireballs' falling from the sky over the right bank of the Curuçá River (Wikipedia).
The Bendegó is the largest known Brazilian meteorite to date. It weighs 5.36 tons and measures 2.15 m × 1.5 m × 65 cm. With a somewhat flattened shape, it resembles a riding saddle. It is a compact mass composed mainly of iron and nickel, with smaller amounts of other elements. Despite its colossal size, it no longer ranks among the ten largest meteorites in the world (16th today), although it was the second largest in weight and size at the time of its discovery. It was found in the interior of Bahia (in the region where the municipalities of Monte Santo and Uauá are located today) and is now housed in the meteorite hall of the National Museum in Rio de Janeiro (Meteoríticas | Carvalho, W.P. et al., Revista Brasileira de Geociências, 2011).
4 ATLANTIC BRAZIL
The Brazilian coastline extends for 7,491 km, making it the 15th longest national coastline in the world (Wikipedia, SEE). Approximately 8.15% of it lies in the Northern Hemisphere, while the remaining 91.85% stretches across the Southern Hemisphere, spanning 17 states. The entire coast borders the Atlantic Ocean. The coastal region features a diverse array of geographical formations, including islands, bays, tropical beaches interspersed with mangroves, lagoons, tidal flats, dunes, and extensive coral reefs. For the most comprehensive reference on Brazil’s coastal zones, consult the Atlas Geográfico das Zonas Costeiras e Oceânicas do Brasil (IBGE, 2011, SEE).
EEZ
Brazilian Maritime Territory refers to Brazil’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), an offshore area covering 3.6 M km² along the Brazilian coast, making it the 11th largest in the world. The Northeast region contains the largest portion of Brazil’s EEZ due to several widely spaced islands forming a continuous marine zone. However, Trindade Island lies too far from the coast to be included in a similar configuration (Wikipedia).
On March 26, 2025, the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) of the United Nations (UN) approved a proposal submitted by Brazil to extend its continental shelf — the submerged prolongation of its land territory — off the northern coast. This initiative, led by the Brazilian Navy with support from Petrobras (the main financial backer), grants Brazil exclusive rights to explore a maritime area of 360,000 km², equivalent to the size of Germany, located beyond the 200-nautical-mile limit off the coasts of Amapá and Pará (Poder Naval | Defesa em Foco). To secure this extension beyond 200 nautical miles, Brazil had to provide technical evidence demonstrating that the underwater relief of the Equatorial Margin is a natural extension of its continental landmass. The CLCS requires geological proof that confirms the physical continuity between the continent and the seabed. The submission process involved a series of technical reports and diplomatic negotiations, which began back in 2004. The initial request was denied but resubmitted in 2007 based on new data. In February of this year, members of the Brazilian Continental Shelf Survey Plan (LEPLAC) joined the Brazilian Delegation at the 63rd Session of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) in New York (USA). On that occasion, the analysis of the submission concerning the Equatorial Margin was concluded, and the review of the Eastern and Southern Margins was initiated. This decision is the result of seven years of interaction between Brazilian experts and CLCS specialists, marking a milestone in the definition of Brazil’s maritime boundaries. The UN had already recognized another extension of Brazil’s continental shelf in the southern region back in 2019.
COAST SECTIONS
The interaction of the geological background, sea level history, sediment supply, present climate (temperature, wind speed and precipitation) and associated oceanographic processes (waves and coastal currents) has contributed to the development of the different landscapes along the Brazilian coastline. There is a great variety of environments such as macrotidal plains covered by mangrove forests in the north; semi-arid coasts, bordered by Tertiary cliffs and delta-like coastal plains on the central coast; and wave-dominated environments in the south, either characterized by dissipative beaches at the border of the Late Quaternary coastal plain or rocky shores and eventually interrupted by reflective-to-intermediate pocket beaches. Based on these relatively unique characteristics, the major coastal typologies or compartments present in Brazil have been described includes six sections (Copertino, MS et al, Brazilian Journal of Oceanography, 2016).
The northern coast (1,200 km long) receives the largest volume of sediment on the entire coast of Brazil because of the Amazon River and other associated rivers (e.g., Tocantins and Parnaíba). It has a wide continental shelf (up to 300 km wide) and is controlled by macrotidal processes (> 4 m, up to 6.3 within estuaries), with wide estuary mouths and short and narrow barriers. The region holds the largest mangrove system in the world and the gorge of the largest river in length, water and sediment discharge, the Amazon River. It has a tide-mud-dominated coast to the west (Amapá-Guyanas) and a tide-dominated mangrove coast to the east (Pará-Maranhão).
The notheastern coast is a sediment-starved coastal zone, resulting from low relief, small drainage basins and a semiarid climate. The coast is dominated by sedimentary cliffs (Barreiras group), the river runoff is extremely low and the whole area suffers from coastal erosion. The coastline is characterized by the presence of actively retreating cliffs, beachrocks (cemented upper shoreface sediments) and coral-algal reefs built on top of the beach rocks and abrasion terraces. The northwestern section of the region is a semi-arid coast (Piauí, Ceará and the west coast of Rio Grande do Norte), very dry and highly impacted by erosion. The eastern section of the northeast coast, from south of Rio Grande do Norte to northern Bahia, has a more humid climate. It includes a barrier reef coast that stretches intermittently for 3,000 km (between Pernambuco and Bahia States) and comprises coral and sandstone barrier reefs that act like breakwaters, decreasing the wave energy and limiting sediment re-suspension to the shore.
The eastern coast (in Bahia, Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro) receives a considerable volume of sediment as a result of the presence of large rivers draining high-relief, humid areas. The presence of the sedimentary cliffs is still dominant but less continuous in the southern part. The region is marked by alternations in dominance between the waves generated by the trade winds and the swell waves generated by cold fronts from the south, and it is highly susceptible to the changes in dominance between tropical and subtropical climatic-oceanographic processes. The coast alternates among regions of equilibrium, accretion and erosion, with more than 30% of the coastal area suffering from erosion, and accretion occurring mainly on the coastal plains of the river delta.
The southerastern coast, along the Rio de Janeiro State coast, has an almost east-west alignment to the coastline, being highly exposed to storm waves from the south. The longshore sediment transport tends to be in equilibrium throughout the year, with the less frequent, high-energy waves (swell) from the south and southwest being compensated for by the more frequent waves from the southeast.
The southeast/south rocky coast from the Ilha Grande Bay (Rio de Janeiro State) to the Santa Marta Cape (Santa Catarina State) is characterized by the proximity of the coastal mountain range (Serra do Mar), resulting in a submerged landscape with a sequence of high cliffs, innumerous small coves and beaches interconnected by rocky shores. From São Vicente to northern Santa Catarina, including the coast of Paraná, the coastline is formed by long beaches and wide coastal plains with wide estuaries, such as at Santos and Cananéia in São Paulo, Paranaguá and Guaratuba in Paraná and São Francisco do Sul in Santa Catarina. From northern Santa Catarina to southern Santa Catarina Island, the coastline becomes irregular with outcrops of the crystalline basement and small coastal plains.
The southern coast, from Santa Marta Cape (Santa Catarina) to Chuí (Rio Grande do Sul) on the border between Brazil and Uruguay, the coastline is formed by a long, wide, fine-grained and continuous beach in front of a multiple barrier-lagoon system, the widest lagoons being the Patos and Mirim Lagoons. The series of barriers are separated by low-lying areas occupied by freshwater wetlands and large fresh-water bodies, with no access to the sea but for the Rio Grande, Tramandaí and Chuy inlets. This is the longest barrier system in South America and certainly one of the longest in the world.
OCEANCIC ISLANDS
SALINITY AROUND SOUTH AMERICA
Regarding biodiversity on these islands, Rocas Atoll hosts 18 species of insects and 7 species of arachnids (Almeida C.E. et al., Rev. Bras. Biol., 2000). Fernando de Noronha is home to three endemic land snail species (Salvador et al., Tentacle, 2022) and 453 insect species across 21 orders, primarily Diptera and Coleoptera (Rafael et al., Rev. Bras. Entomol., 2020). The Noronha worm lizard is a reptile closely related to Caribbean species of the same genus (Graboski et al., Mol. Phyl. and Evol., 2019). For data on Collembola in Brazilian islands, Lima et al. (Insects, 2021) provide information on Poduromorpha, while Lima et al. (Diversity, 2021) focus on Entomobryomorpha. In terms of bryophytes, Fernando de Noronha has 31 species across 14 genera and 14 families (Fieldguides, 2021), while Trindade hosts 38 species, including 20 liverworts, 17 mosses, and one hornwort (Fieldguides, 2022).
BEACHES
There is no official catalog of the number of beaches in Brazil. The Guia 4 Rodas, a popular Brazilian travel and automotive magazine, listed 2,095 beaches in its 2007 edition (Mar Sem Fim).
TIDAL ZONE
A recent global remote sensing analysis estimated that Brazil has 5,389 km² of tidal flats, ranking it as the 7th country with the largest tidal flat areas (Murray et al., Nature, 2018).
DEEPEST POINT
The lowest point of the Brazilian EEZ and, therefore, of the entire national territory, can be found by accessing the Ocean Basemap (SEE), activating 'layers', selecting ArcGIS Online mode, searching for 'Brasil ZEE', and activating the correct layer for a visual search. Then, the Bathymetric Data Viewer (SEE) helps to obtain the exact point. The exact point is located at the approximate coordinates of 25°43'12" W 19°25'40.8" S, reaching a depth of -6182m, and does not have an official name, being 348 km from Martim Vaz island and 1,430 km from the mainland, at the latitude of Bahia.
DEEP OCEAN RESEARCH
Knowledge of Brazil's deep oceans has seen a relative increase in recent years, largely as a result of a partnership with Japanese institutions; for excellent prospecting work on the southeastern coast larf, see several works publicied in 2020 at Deep Sea Research (Editorial, 2017), inc. deep sea works in São Paulo ridge (SEE), Rio Grande Rise (benthic megafauna/SEE and benthopelagic megafauna/SEE), (SEE). Other deep sea works in submersile vehicles includes discoveries of sponges in Amazonas river mouth (Moser et al., Zootaxa, 2022; see also Zenodo). The most complete reference for Brazilian deep sea biodiversity, see the homonymous book, by Sumida et al. (Springer, 2020).
5 BORDERS
Brazil has 14,691 km of borders (making it the third longest in the world), shares land borders with 10 countries (Brazil ranking 4th or 3rd worldwide depending consideration of only-Metropolitan France), and also 10 single line-borders (ranking 11th globally and first in the New World; some european countries has many single-line borders), based on Wikipedia (SEE).
Administratively, Brazil’s borders encompass 121 border municipalities across 11 states, covering approximately 1.4 M km² and home to around 730 K inhabitants. The country also has nine international tripoints: six located in rivers, one at a mountain summit, and the two northernmost points deep within the Amazon. Brazil’s border with Bolivia stretches 3,403 km, making it the 8th longest international border in the world (Statista). For details on specific tripoints, see BR/GU/VZ (GOV.BR), BR/VZ/CL (X), and BR/BL/PAR (Amboro Tours). A comprehensive list of public documents — including treaties, reports, collections, maps, and links — related to Brazil’s borders is available at PCDL (MRE).
6 RELIEF
As a portion of Earth’s dynamic surface, Brazil features a complex geological basement, a dense network of rivers, multiple layers of vegetation, the climatic influence of the atmospheric gas layer, and a rugged surface that includes numerous elements such as mountains, valleys, plains, lagoons, canyons, sinkholes, caves, wetlands, waterfalls, and many others.
ALTUTUDES
Brazil has an average altitude of 325m above sea level. Among Brazilian states, the one with the highest average elevation is the Federal District itself, at 1,035m, followed by Minas Gerais (734m) and Santa Catarina (677m). The state with the lowest average elevation is Amazonas, at just 102m — ironically, it is also home to Brazil’s highest point (Nexo Jornal).
Among Brazilian municipalities, 176 are located at elevations exceeding 1,000m. The highest is Campos do Jordão (São Paulo), at 1,587m, followed by at least nine cities in Minas Gerais, with Itamonte ranking second at 1,576m. Notably, 120 of these 176 high-altitude municipalities are located in Minas Gerais (Nexo Jornal).
MOUNTAINS
Contrasting to the Andes, which rose to elevations of nearly 7,000 m in a relatively recent epoch and inverted the Amazonia direction of flow from westward to eastward, Brazil's geological formation is very old. Precambrian crystalline shields cover approx 2/5 of the territory, especially its central area. Brazil no has surface below sea level.
Eastern Brazil harbours the second most extensive South American network of mountain ranges, surpassed only by the Andes. The Mantiqueira Range and the Espinhaço Range (hereafter Mantiqueira and Espinhaço) are two nearly connected main orogenic belts of southeastern Brazil. Together, these highlands are distributed along a broad latitudinal range (10°S–24°S), extending approximately 1600 km from north to south, reaching up to 2890 m high. Mantiqueira Range is divided into two sections: southern Mantiqueira extends from E São Paulo state along the southern border of Minas Gerais state, whereas the northern section is on the border of the states of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Espinhaço is also divided into two main sections: the Septentrional Espinhaço in Bahia State and the Meridional Espinhaço, mainly in Minas Gerais State, with the Quadrilátero Ferrífero (hereafter Quadrilátero) region representing its southernmost mountain formation. The Mantiqueira is fully embedded within the Atlantic Forest domain (AF), while the Meridional Espinhaço is in a transitional zone between the AF to the east and the Cerrado domain to the west, both global biodiversity hotspots. Septentrional Espinhaço, despite being influenced by the AF and Cerrado, lies within the Caatinga domain (Brunes, T.O. et al., Systematics and Biodiversity, 2023).
BRAZILIAN FIVE MAXIMAL POINTS AT RELIEF SHADED IN GREEN TO YELLOW LAYERS
Regarding the list of Brazil’s highest points, we follow the discussion proposed by Almanaque Z (VEJA), which adopts the concept of maximal points and abandons the traditional terminology of 'culminating points', 'highest mountains', and similar labels. Under this criterion, Pico da Neblina and Pico 31 de Março are understood as parts of a single topographic unit, whose maximal relief is Pico da Neblina (a topic already well addressed in an excellent article published by Alta Montanha). Likewise, Pico do Calçado, Pico do Cristal, and Pico da Bandeira belong to a single unit, represented by its maximal relief: Pico da Bandeira. In this way, the five highest mountains in Brazil (all over 2,730m) are the ones that follow ahead. Brazil highest point (Pico da Neblina, 2,992m) is only the 71st highest in the world (SEE), smaller than the respective for all neighbours except Guianas, Paraguay and Uruguay, evidencing the low altitude of the national territory - by the way, Brazil has only 320m of average altitude, being in position 118 in the ranking of highest countries (SEE). Pico da Bandeira in Serra do Caparaó (2,892m), the second highest maximal points in country, is remarkable for being the Brazilian mountain with the greatest topographic isolation: 2,344 km (SEE). In Americas, only Aconcagua, Mount McKinley, Pico de Orizaba and Mount Whitney are more topographically isolated than Mount Caparaó, and in the entire world, there are only 20 more isolated mountains.
The mentioned altitude of Mount Roraima Tepui below is not that of the top of the mountain, but that of the geodesic mark at the triple point of the borders of Brazil, Venezuela and Guyana — this landmark is the highest point of the mountain that is at least partially in Brazilian territory. The highest point of Mount Roraima as a whole is located in entirely Venezuela's side (Wikipedia), or, by recent works, in Guyana's side (Reddit/Mountainneering). To follow a beautiful expedition to the top of Serra do Imeri in Pico da Neblina, see SPOT Brasil (YT/2018).
GEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS
Among other elements, the numerous canyons found in Brazil, notable examples include the Poty River Canyon in Piauí, the São Francisco Canyon, between Bahia and Pernambuco, the Talhado Canyon (N Minas Gerais state), the Guartelá Canyon in E Paraná state (SEE), as well as the canyons of SE Santa Catarina and NE Rio Grande do Sul. As for inland dune fields, we can mention the Jalapão dunes in Tocantins and the paleodunes of Middle São Francisco in N Bahia state. Finally, regarding waterfalls, Brazil hosts sites in virtually all states, with over 28 waterfalls exceeding 200 m in height, according to the website Cachoeiras Gigantes (SEE).
The Brazilian territory encompasses a wide variety of landforms associated with rocky outcrops, unevenly distributed across different regions of the country. Among the most prominent formations are the numerous inselbergs found in northern Ceará (as Pedra da Galinha Choca), eastern Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and northern Rio de Janeiro — isolated structures that rise abruptly from the surrounding landscape (as Pedra Elefantina, Pedra Azul, Pedra da Gávea, Pão de Açucar and Pedra Riscada). In Paraíba, Lajedo de Pai Mateus stands out as a notable example of residual relief, while the sandstone formations of Vila Velha, in Paraná, display shapes sculpted by intense weathering and erosion processes. In Rio Grande do Norte, Pico do Cabugi is a rare example of an extinct volcano with a relatively well-preserved structure. The Jalapão region in Tocantins features striking mesas and plateaus, characteristic of areas with sedimentary rock formations. In Goiás, the Pedra Azul State Park showcases large, rounded granite blocks, while the Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park contains deep canyons and towering quartzite cliffs. These geomorphological features highlight the geological complexity of Brazil and reflect the long-term influence of exogenous processes over geological time."
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7 GEOMORPHOLOGY
Brazil exhibits a great diversity of soils, rocks, and minerals, reflecting its complex geological history and climatic variety. Most of the territory is dominated by Oxisols, Ultisols, and Entisols, while colder or more arid soil types, such as Chernozems and Andosols, occur only in residual areas. The country also hosts extensive rock formations, from ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks to recent sediments, as well as rich mineral deposits, including iron, bauxite, and manganese, which support important economic activities.
SOILS
The World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) classifies 32 major soil groups worldwide (Wikipedia), whereas the Sistema Brasileiro de Classificação de Solos (SiBCS) recognizes only 13 main soil types within the country (SEE). These two classification systems are conflicting. Despite the diversity of 25 different soil types in WBR critery, the vast majority — about 70% — consists of Oxisols, Ultisols, and Entisols, while Chernozem and Andosol soils occur in the country only in trace amounts.
24 soil type by WBR criteria are known in Brazil: Andosol (AN, SEE, with a single manch in South America outiside Andes in Rio Grande do Sul state/SEE), Umbrisol (UM, virtually unknown in Brazil/SEE, however present in some areas, SEE), Histosol (HS, SEE), Anthrosol (AT, man made soil, not recognised at a high classification level in Brazil, SEE; include black-soil from Amazon), Technosol (TC, man made soil, not recognised at a high classification level in Brazil, The Soils of Brazil), Leptosol (LP, SEE), Solonetz (SN, SEE), Vertisol (VR, SEE), Gleysol (GL, SEE), Podzol (PZ, SEE), Plinthosol (PT, SEE), Planosol (PL, SEE), Nitisol (NT, SEE), Ferralsol (FR, SEE), Chernosol (CH, very dark and well-structured topsoil, secondary carbonates, SEE, known in Brazil in southern Rio Grande do Sul state, SEE), Kastanozem (KS, SEE, known in some regions of northeastern Brazil, SEE), Phaeozem (PH, SEE), Acrisol (AC, SEE), Lixisol (LX, SEE), Alisol (AL, SEE), Luvisol (LV, SEE), Cambisol (CM, SEE), Fluvisol (FL, SEE), Solonchak (SC, SEE, rare in Brazil/SEE), and Arenosol (AR, SEE) and six are unknown or almost unknown in Brazil: Cryosol (CR, permafrost-affected, SEE), Gypsisol (GY, SEE), Calcisol (CL, SEE), Stagnosol (ST, SEE), Retisols (RT, former Albiluvisol, SEE), and Regosol (RG, SEE). Unfortunately, there is no consistent information available on one soil type: Durisols (DU).
Loess is not exactly a soil type but rather a parent material — a fine-grained, wind-deposited dust rich in silt and calcium carbonate, laid down during glacial periods. It has a predominantly silty texture (up to 70–80% silt), high porosity, good drainage, and great natural fertility when it evolves into Chernozems or Phaeozems. However, it is highly erosion-prone. Loess typically has a yellowish to gray color and a granular, stable structure with strong natural aggregation. It originates from glacial dust transported by wind during cold, dry periods (mainly the Pleistocene). Major loess deposits occur in northern China (the Loess Plateau, the world’s largest), Central and Eastern Europe (Germany, Ukraine, Poland, Hungary), the central U.S.A. (Missouri, Iowa, Illinois), and Argentina (Pampas and Andean forelands).
Brazil lacks significant loess deposits, precisely because it was never covered by continental ice sheets and has no large cold-dust plains. Some fine-textured soils in southern Brazil may resemble loess in particle size, but they are of volcanic or sedimentary — not glacial eolian — origin.
MOSAIC OF BRAZILIAN SOILS (BRAZILIAN SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM | MAP | SYNGENTA DIGITAL) AND SOME EXAMPLES
MINERALS
Brazil is extremely rich in gemstones and minerals, displaying a diversity found in few other countries. It is home to a wide range of colored quartzes (amethyst, citrine, rose quartz), tourmalines — including the famous Paraíba tourmaline, imperial topaz (from Ouro Preto, the world’s only major deposit), and various beryls (aquamarine, emerald, morganite, heliodor), as well as diamonds and strategic elements such as niobium, tantalum, beryllium, and lithium, all essential to modern technologies. The country also contains rare gem-bearing pegmatites in states such as Minas Gerais, Paraíba, and Rio Grande do Norte.
In Brazil, rubies are found in Bahia and Santa Catarina, but they do not reach the quality or grandeur of those from the great Asian producers such as Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, India, and Sri Lanka (SEE | SEE). Some minerals mentioned as rare or absent in the country have, in fact, been confirmed through verified findings — such as glaucophane (SEE), realgar (SEE), and coesita (SEE). In total, Brazil is the type locality for 65 minerals — a relatively small number compared to major global players such as the United States and Russia (Revista Fapesp).
Nevertheless, there are notable gaps directly related to the absence of specific geological environments, such as recent volcanism, active subduction zones, ultra-high-pressure metamorphism, and extremely arid climates.
When it comes to valuable gemstones, it is quite common for many of them — including some of the rarest and most prized — to occur in several regions around the world. At the same time, certain species and varieties are extremely restricted, sometimes found in only a few localities or even a single country, such as lapis-lazuli (deep blue, typical of the Andes in Afghanistan, Chile, and smaller amounts in Russia, Angola, Argentina, Burma, Ethiopia, Pakistan, Canada, Italy, India, and in the United States in California and Colorado - Wikipedia), jadeite (a translucent green jade found in Myanmar, Guatemala, and Japan), nephrite (another jade variety, gray-green, common in China, New Zealand, Russia, and Canada), benitoite (glassy blue, a rare mineral from California and Australia), tanzanite (violet-blue, from Tanzania), larimar (light-blue pectolite, from the Dominican Republic, associated with recent andesitic volcanism), painite (reddish-brown, from Myanmar, one of the rarest minerals in the world, found in boron – aluminum metamorphic pegmatites unknown in Brazil), and poudretteite (light pink, from Canada and Myanmar, associated with rare alkaline pegmatites, also absent in the country). Brazil hosts an immense diversity of gemstones, including diamonds, rubies, sapphires, topaz, and many others. Among the most notable are the near-exclusive Paraíba tourmaline, an elbaite that occurs primarily in the Borborema Pegmatite Province in the states of Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte (with smaller deposits in Nigeria and Mozambique), and which is the rarest and most valuable of all tourmaline varieties (Desgeoeduorg | Brazil Paraiba Mine); and amethyst, for which Brazil holds the world’s largest known mine, located in the state of Rio Grande do Sul (Top Trip Adventura).
Among metallic minerals, those absent or extremely rare in Brazil include nickel from young ultramafic laterites (common in Indonesia and the Philippines), molybdenum (MoS₂, typical of Andean porphyry copper deposits in Chile and the United States, which are absent in Brazil), rhenium (associated with recent volcanic systems in the Chilean Andes), tungsten (scheelite and wolframite, abundant in China, Portugal, and Bolivia, but found in Brazil only in small occurrences), palladium and platinum (which occur in large quantities in Russia and South Africa, while Brazil contains only minor traces in Carajás and Goiás, lacking large layered complexes such as the Bushveld), and mercury (cinnabar, common in Spain, the United States, and Mexico, formed in hydrothermal volcanic settings, which are not present in Brazil).
Minerals formed under glacial, arid, or volcanic conditions are also absent, such as natron (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O, typical of alkaline desert lakes in Africa), trona and massive halite (evaporites from desert basins that occur in Brazil only as thin layers), and native sulfur and orpiment (As₂S₃, AsS, produced in fumaroles and young hydrothermal environments — nonexistent in Brazil due to the lack of recent volcanism). Finally, metamorphic and exotic minerals absent from Brazil include microcrystalline impact diamond (formed in young impact craters such as those in Siberia and Canada — whereas Brazilian craters are ancient). Likewise, lawsonite form under high-pressure, low-temperature conditions, typical of subduction zones — a geological feature not found in Brazil.
ROCKS
VOLCANIC ROCKS ABSENT IN BRAZIL
Brazil hosts extensive ancient basaltic flows, such as those of the Serra Geral Formation (Cretaceous), but has had no active volcanism for tens of millions of years. Consequently, volcanic types typical of active magmatic arcs are absent, including andesites (common in the Andes, Mexico, Japan, Indonesia, and the Mediterranean), dacites (more silica-rich varieties found in the Andes and the Philippines), and young rhyolites (felsic rocks from recent explosive eruptions, e.g., Yellowstone, New Zealand, and the Andes). In Brazil, only ancient rhyolites occur, associated with Proterozoic magmatic provinces such as Paraná–Etendeka.
Also absent are recent tholeiitic basalts (typical of oceanic ridges and oceanic islands such as Hawaii, Iceland, and the Galápagos) and pumice, obsidian, and fresh volcanic ash, products of explosive volcanism that no longer exists in Brazil.
HIGH-PRESSURE METAMORPHIC ROCKS: RARE OR ABSENT
Despite its long and complex geological history, Brazil has almost no record of rocks formed in deep, recent subduction zones. Eclogites, formed under high pressure and typical of Norway, the Alps, Japan, and Chile, occur only rarely and are ancient. Similarly, blueschists, formed under high-pressure and low-temperature conditions (as in the Andes, California, and Japan), are practically absent.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF GLACIAL OR EXTREMELY ARID ENVIRONMENTS
Because Brazil has tropical climates and has not undergone recent continental glaciations, modern glacial sediments such as tillites (glacial diamictites) — common in Antarctica, Canada, and Scandinavia — are missing. Only very old tillites from the Paleoproterozoic (e.g., Jequitinhonha Formation) are found.
Thick evaporite sequences (halite and massive gypsum), typical of closed arid basins such as the Dead Sea, the Sahara, and large Texas basins, are also absent, occurring only as thin and ancient layers (Araripe and Sergipe basins). Likewise, young tuffs and ignimbrites, products of recent explosive volcanism, are not found in Brazil.
ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS
Brazil contains some ancient ultramafic rocks, such as komatiites and peridotites, but lacks young, active kimberlites, typical of South Africa and Siberia. Ancient and inactive kimberlites are found in Minas Gerais and Goiás, and lamproites and carbonatites occur in places such as Araxá and Catalão, though all are remnants of ancient activity. Similarly, young komatiites are absent — only very old examples are preserved.
8 LAND CAVES
Caves are a striking element of the planet's landscapes, and they are as diverse as they are fascinating, occurring both on land and underwater, in various latitudes and lithologies, and varing in size, inclinations and many other elements. An excellent overview of caves in Brazil — including their main systems and lithologies — can be found in Auler & Farrant (University of Bristol Spelaeological Society, 2006), despite the age of the text.
NUMBERS
Data from 2023/2024 indicate that Brazil has 26,046 documented caves. Minas Gerais is the state with the largest number of known caves, totaling 12,911 entries (49.57%), followed by Pará (3,224), Bahia (2,017), Rio Grande do Norte (1,373), and Goiás (1,136). Among the Brazilian biomes, the Cerrado contains 12,008 caves, while the Pampa and Pantanal have the fewest records, with only 38 and 12 respectively (ICMBIO).
LITHOLOGY
Brazil exhibits high lithological diversity in its cave systems: although most caves are formed in limestone, several other lithologies are also represented. In marble, the Casa de Pedra Cave is highlighted, cited in various references as the largest of its type in Brazil located in Martins (RN, 110m, SEE); in granite, the Riacho Subterrâneo Cave, in Itu (SP, 1,415m, Bichuette et al, Neotropical Biology and Conservation, 2017), is recognized as the largest granite cave in Brazil, in the Southern Hemisphere, and the sixth largest in the world; volcanic caves — or lava tubes — are common in Hawaii, the Galápagos, and the Canary Islands, but are rare in Brazil, known in the country only from four caves documented in SW Paraná state (Casa de Pedra and Perau Branco in Palmital, Dal Pae in Marquinho, and Pinhão in Pinhão, SINAGEO/2016 | G1); in quartzite, the largest is the Martiniano II Cave, in Ibitipoca (MG, 4770m, SEE); in gneiss, the Chacina Cave in São José do Barreiro (SP, 406m, SEE) stands out as the largest of this lithology in Brazil; and finally, in sandstone, the largest national cave is Aroe Jari, in Chapada dos Guiamarães (MT, 1,550m, SEE); and iron ore, being spatial units predominantly composed of ferruginous lithotypes that, in Brazil, are restricted to few regions outside the state of Minas Gerais (Iron Quadrangle, West border of Serra do Espinhaço and Rio Peixe Bravo Valley), Pará (Serra de Carajás), Bahia (Rio São Francisco Valley) and Mato Grosso do Sul (Urucum plateuau), based on Gomes, M. et al. (Revista Colombiana de Geografía, 2019).
There is no updated data on the distribution of caves by lithology in Brazil. Data from 2011/2012 estimate around, when there were only 10,220 known caves in Brazil, that they were distributed by lithology as follows: 7,000 karst caves, 2,000 iron ore caves, 510 quartzite caves, 510 sandstone caves, and 200 caves in other rocks (Rocha, MC et al., Brazilian Geographical Journal, 2018).
RECORDS
The two largest Brazilian caves in horizontal projection are Toca da Boa Vista (114 km, 22th largest cave worldwide and the second in southern Hemisphere after Builita Cave in Australia/Wikipedia) and Toca da Barriguda (35 km), both in Campo Formoso, Bahia. In depth are Centenário Cave (484 m) and the Bocaina Cave (404 m), both in Mariana, Minas Gerais (Grupo Bambuí).
CENOTES
A cenote is a natural pit, or sinkhole, resulting when a collapse of limestone bedrock exposes groundwater. The term originated on the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico, where the ancient Maya commonly used cenotes for water supplies, and occasionally for sacrificial offerings. The term cenote, originally applying only to the features in Yucatán, has since been applied by researchers to similar karst features in other places such as in Cuba, Australia, Europe, Brazil (National Geographic Brazil) and U.S.A. (Wikipedia).
UNBRAZILIAN TYPE OF CAVES
Brazil does not includes gypsum caves (Gypsum karst of the world: a brief overview) nor chemoautophoric caves (Movile Cave). In world has 80 caves with more than 1km of depth, none in Brazil (Profundezas).
KARST AREAS (▇) AND LAND CAVES (❍) IN BRAZIL (KA | MDPI), AND SOME RELEVANT CAVES IN IMAGES
9 BRAZILIAN SISMIC and VULCANISM ISSUES
The geological stability of Brazil is a result of its location within the South American Plate, far from active tectonic zones. This ensures the absence of active volcanism and violent earthquakes, creating a relatively safe environment in terms of natural disasters related to plate tectonics.
ACTIVE VOLCANISM
Although Brazil has some areas of extinct volcanic activity, such as in the south and southeast regions (where the Paraná Traps and some volcanic structures in the state of São Paulo are located), there are no recent manifestations, such as volcanoes, lava fields, geysers, or deep marine hydrothermal vents. The youngest continental magmatism in Brazil (19.7 Ma) is represented by Pico do Cabugi, the only extinct volcano in the country that still preserves its original shape, and one of several volcanic necks of the Tertiary alkaline basaltic province of Rio Grande do Norte (SIGEP). It is located in the municipality of Angicos, in Rio Grande do Norte state (Clube Candeias), NE Brazil.
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes in South America are typically shallower than 300 km or deeper than 500 km — the deep earthquakes concentrate in two zones: one that runs beneath the Peru-Brazil border (many details in Earth Jay Maps and Graphics) and another that extends from central Bolivia to central Argentina (Ciardelli et al., Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 2022). Preve, D’Espindula e Valdati (Geografia Física e Desastres Naturais, 2017) list all earthquakes in Brazil with magnitudes above 5 Mb recorded between 1900 and 2017. During this period, 40 events were identified, 27 of which are concentrated in SE Amazonas and in Acre, with the remaining ones are distributed across other parts of Amazonas (2), as well as Amapá (2), N Mato Grosso (3), NW Goiás (1), SE Santa Catarina (1), S Minas Gerais (1), Espírito Santo (1), E Pernambuco (1), and N Rio Grande do Norte (1). Among the earthquakes from this southeastern sector of Amazonas and Acre are the 4 largest events in the survey, as well as 5 of the 7 largest ever documented in the country. The largest of all was the earthquake with its epicenter in Ipixuna (AM), which occurred on June 20, 2003, and reached a magnitude of 7.1 Mb.
It is important to note that this survey does not include data after 2017. More recent years contain well-documented seismic events, including potential earthquakes stronger than those listed here.
SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE (AND THEIR 8 NEIGHBORING) AND LARGEST EARTHQUAKES IN BRAZIL BETWEEN 1900-2027 | SEE
10 CONTINENTAL WATERS
Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5-2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75-2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this fresh surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 22% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes, and 14% in other lakes (Wikipedia).
RIVERS
Brazil has the largest amount of rivers worldwide, and the largest renowable water resources, with 8,233 km³ (Wikipedia, SEE), followeb by Russia with 4,508 km³. Brazilian waters cover about 55,325 km² of the country (Wikipedia, SEE), the 14ª largest water area in World.
There are 193 rivers over 1,000 km, 39 in Russia, 28 in the U.S.A., 24 in China, 22 in Brazil, 14 in Canada and 7 in Australia. The largest rivers that belong to a single country are Yangtze (China), Yellow (China), Lena (Russia), Mackenzie (Canada), Murray (Australia), Volga (Russia), San Francisco (Brazil) and Lower Tunguska (Russia). The three largest rivers in the world that flow into another river are Brahmaputra (India, China, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan), Madeira (Brazil, Bolivia, Peru) and Purus (Brazil, Peru) - for details, see Wikipedia. All river flows from Brazil run into the Atlantic Ocean, i.e., Brazil no has endorheic basins.
Amazonas river, with 6,400 km, is the second longest river in World, after Nile (6,650 km),the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world (1/5 of all riverine discharge to the ocean), greater than the next seven largest independent rivers combined. Amazonas enters Brazil with only 1/5 of the flow it finally discharges into the Atlantic Ocean, yet already has a greater flow at this point than the discharge of any other river (Wikipedia, SEE). São Francisco river is a large river enterely Brazilian, with a length of 2,914 km, the longest river that runs entirely in Brazilian territory, and the fourth longest in South America (Wikipedia). Of the six largest rivers in discharge in the world, 3 are Amazonics, including the Amazonas (209 K m³/s) and two of its tributaries, the Negro (35,943 m³/s) and Madeira (31,200 m³/s) - see Wikipedia (SEE). Of the top 11 on this list, 7 are South Americans.
For contents about Amazonas souces, visit social media videos: Hema Pelo Mundo (YT/2022) and Espírito Livre Expedições (YT/2021). To view parts of a beautiful flight from Belém to Macapá, over the mouth of the Amazon, visit Bruno Augusto (YT/2021).
LAKES
Brazil has a very scarce number of lakes, the vast majority small and without substantial representation; in short, the types that stand out the most are coastal lagoons. We list here the six of the most prominent in the country. Araruama Lake in Rio de Janiero state is the largest body of permanent hypersaline water in the world, with 220 km², surpassing other prominent hypersaline water bodies such as the Great Salt Lake (United States), Lake Coorong (Australia), Lake Enriquillo (Dominican Republic) and the Lagoon Ojo de Liebre in Mexico (Wikipedia), and the second largest salttwater lake in country and the largest enterely within. Juparanã Lake in Espírito Santo state is the largest (62.58 km², Amorim Gonçalves, Dissertation, 2015) and most volumous (0.5281 km³, estimative of Almanaque Z, SEE) freshwater lake enterely in Brazil, and second of both features in country, in both cases after Mirim Lake. Palmas Lake in Espírito Santo state has maximum depth of 50.7 m, a volume of 0.22 km³ and a mean depth of 21.4 m, being the deepest natural lake in Brazil (Plos One, 2014). Mirim Lake is a freshwaater lake, the largest lake in Brazilian territory, with average are c. 3,749 km² (3,381 - 3,863 km²), c. 2/3 in Brazil and 1/3 in Uruguay (Wikipedia); has an average depth of 4.5 m (Munar et al., SBRH, 2017; maximous of 16m), accumulating, based on these numbers, a average of volume of 16.87 km³ (IPH, 1998). Mangueira Lake is a saltwater in SE Rio Grande do Sul state has c. 820 km² and c. 0.7 km³ of volumen, the largest saltwater lake for Brazil (Artioli et al., Iheringia, 2009). Salgado's Lake in northern Rio de Janeiro state contains the unique ocurrence of recent columnar carbonate stromatolites of whole of Brazil and probably of the South America (SIGEP).
SUBTERRANEAN WATERS
The Sistema Nacional de Informações sobre Recursos Hídricos (SNIRH, SEE) of Brazil identifies 151 porous aquifer systems (large amounts of water are stored in pores, which are voids inherent to the rock or soil matrix; in shades of blue on the map below), 26 karst aquifer systems (water flows through conduits that result from the enlargement of joints or fractures by dissolution in carbonate rocks; in shades of brown), and 4 major fractured systems (water circulates through fractures or small cracks, which are structures formed by processes that occurred after the rock’s formation; in green), totaling 181 systems across the national territory (details of types in METADADOS).
MAP OF THE 181 AQUIFER SYSTEMS OF BRAZIL, COLOR-CODED INTO THE THREE MAIN GROUPS (SNIRH), AND DETAILS OF GUARANY AQUIFER
Guarani Aquifer System (GAS) represents the second largest aquifer in the world (after Great Artesian Basin, in Australia, SEE) and the largest in Brazil, occupying 950,000 km² within the Paraná sedimentary basin at 8 states, reaching also in other three countries: Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay; 90 M people are directly or indirectly benefitting from the GAS exploitation (Teramoto, Gonçalves & Chang, Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 2022).
FRESHWATER ECOREGIONS
426 freshwater ecoregions cover virtually the entire non-marine surface of the earth (MAP), 24 in Brazil, the smallest in Brazil is the Chaco, with a small portion in Mato Grosso do Sul state.
11 CLIMATE
Despite the wide latitude and the relative variety of temperatures and rainfall rates throughout the national territory, Brazil is not a country of climatic extremes. In few words, the south of the country has higher records of cold temperatures, while the northeast has a history of low rainfall.
TEMPERATURES AND RAINFALL
The driest place of Brazil is possibly Cabaceiras municiality in Paraíba state, with an average of 336.6 mm with 86 years of observations; during the 86 years studied the total annual extreme rainfall were recorded in the year 1964 in which it rained 775.5 mm and 1952 when the annual total recorded was 23.8 mm (Carmem T. Breckam et al., Revista Educação Agrícola Superior, 2013). The rainest place in Brazil in Calçoene municipality, in Amapá state, with 4,165mm rainfall by year (EMBRAPA). Brazil is the 43th rainest country worldwide, with a average by year/by area of 1,761mm (Global Economy). Oliveira, L.L. et al. (IEPA/AP, 2007), analyzing data from station 825002 in Calçoene, between 1975 and 2006, found an average of 4,238.3mm annually, above the value most commonly reported for the point.
However, the Koppen Brazil Github data, which highlights at the municipal level the variables temperature, altitude, and rainfall, and whose source could not be determined, identifies the cities of São Gabriel da Cachoeira (3619.6 mm) and Japurá (3527.8 mm) — both in Amazonas — as the wettest in Brazil, with Calçoene only in 3rd place (3344.3 mm). The list continues alternating between Amazonas and Amapá for several consecutive positions. Among the driest, the same reference cites São Domingos do Cariri (409.6 mm), Barra de São Miguel (421.3 mm), and Caraúbas (429.3 mm) as the driest, all in Paraíba, with Cabaceiras (429.3 mm) in only 5th place. Paraíba, Pernambuco, and Bahia alternate positions among the driest municipalities in the country.
The highest temperature officially registered in Brazil was 44.8 °C (112.6 °F) in Araçuaí, Minas Gerais state, on 19 November 2023 (G1); the lowest temperature officially recorded in Brazil was −14 °C (7 °F) in Caçador, Santa Catarina state, on 11 June 1952 (CIRAN/EPAGRI). There are frosts south of the Tropic of Capricorn during the winter (June–September). The coudest municipality in Brazil is Urupema, Santa Catarina state.
ANNUAL CLIMATOLOGICAL NORMALS OF TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION FROM 1991 TO 2020 IN BRAZIL (INMET)
Brazil's cold record is less extreme than that of mostly tropical countries like Botswana, Mexico, Peru and Australia; in turn, the heat record is less extreme than that of essentially temperate non-desert countries such as Azerbaijan, Myanmar, Nepal, Turkey, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, North Macedonia, Portugal, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Canada, as well as the records of Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Guatemala (Wikipedia).
ARID DESERTS
Brazil no has true deserts (1/10 are semi-arid in NE region), however in 2023, research by Cemaden and Inpe identified in the historical series the first region with a truly arid climate in Brazil (CEMADEN), a area of 5,763 km² and is located in the center-north of Bahia and covers the entire area of the cities of Abaré, Chorrochó and Macururé, in addition of area of Curaçá, Juazeiro and Rodelas, municipalities in Bahia that border the Pernambuco hinterland, with an aridity index of less than 0.2 (G1).
DISTRIBUTION OF SEMI-ARID AREAS AROUND THE WORLD AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE BRAZILIAN SEMI-ARID REGION IN RECENT YEARS
SNOW
Snow in Brazil often happens in winter in the mountains of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and Paraná, and is rarer at lower elevations. It is possible, but very rare, in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and Mato Grosso do Sul. The greatest snowfall recorded in the country occurred in Vacaria on 7 August 1879, when more than 2m of snow accumulated on the ground. Other significant snowfalls where more than 1m of snow accumulated happened on 20 July 1957 in São Joaquim and 15 June 1985, in Pico das Agulhas Negras. São Joaquim has the most snowy days of any settlement in Brazil. Snow has been recorded in Curitiba during several years, but has not accumulated significantly since 1975. In 2013, snow hit several municipalities, including Curitiba. Snow has also occurred in Porto Alegre, but is very rare (Wikipedia).
HISTORICAL RECORDS OF SNOW IN BRAZIL SINCE 1879, HIGHLIGHTING 1M-OR-HIGHER SNOW ACCUMULER CITIES IN DARK GRAY (REDDIT)
ATMOSPHERIC DYNAMICS
Because the South Atlantic basin is generally not a favorable environment for their development, Brazil has only rarely experienced tropical cyclones. The country's coastal population centers are considered less burdened with the need to prepare for cyclones, as are cities at similar latitudes in the United States and Asia. In 2011, the Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center started assigning official names to tropical and subtropical cyclones that develop within its area of responsibility, which is to the west of 20°W, when they have gained sustained wind speeds of 65 km/h and over. Hurricane Catarina is the first and only South Atlantic tropical cyclone to have reached hurricane strength, and impacted Santa Catarina as a Category 2 storm in March 28, 2004. It reached sustained wind speeds of 155 km/h and a pressure of 972 millibars. The hurricane damaged shipyards and several crop fields, and poorer people were affected the most. At least 2,000 people became homeless as a result of the storm (Wikipedia).
HISTORIC SERIES OF HURRICANES, IMAGE AND WAY OF OF CATARINA HURRICANE, UNIQUE IN RECENT HISTORY OF BRAZIL
Regarding tornadoes, southeastern South America has one of the most active corridors on the planet, spanning mainly N Argentina, S Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. This zone concentrates severe supercells formed by the clash between warm, humid air and colder air descending from the Andes and higher latitudes, being one of the most dynamic and violent meteorological environments in the Southern Hemisphere — the USA is the world leader in recorded tornadoes — averaging about 1,225 per year (G1). Almeida (IC/UEPG, 2023) lists records of tornadoes from 1978 to 2018 indicate 581 events in Brazil, spread across 422 municipalities, 159 of which reported more than one occurrence — the southern states dominate overwhelmingly (411): Rio Grande do Sul (180), Santa Catarina (142), and Paraná (89). Outside the South, the states with the highest counts are São Paulo (89) and Minas Gerais (11). Beyond this group, occurrences are scarce and many records are imprecise, with the Central-West, North, and Northeast regions each reporting fewer than 30 cases. The deadliest tornado in Brazil struck the cities of Palmas (Paraná) and Canoinhas (Santa Catarina) on August 14, 1959, resulting in approximately 90 deaths (Gazeta do Povo). Twenty-five of Brazil's 26 states have recorded at least one tornado since 1970, the only one without confirmation being the state of Acre (Wikipedia/List of Brazil tornadoes).
TORNADO CORRIDOR OF SOUTHERN BRAZIL, AND SOME HISTORICAL TORNADO RECORDS
'Flying rivers' are air currents that bring water vapour from Amazonia, in the equatorial zone of Northern South America, down as far south as Northern Argentina. The humidity carried by these “airborne rivers” is responsible for much of the rain that falls in the Centre-West, Southeast and South of Brazil. Amazing as it might seem, the quantity of water transported by the flying rivers could well be equivalent to or even greater than the flow of the mighty Amazon itself. Total amount of water released into the atmosphere every day by the rainforest at around 20 B tonnes. This compares interestingly with the total volume of water discharged daily (at a rate of 200,000 m³/s) into the Atlantic by the Amazon River: 17 B tonnes. (riosvoadores.com).
FLYING RIVERS' IN SOUTH AMERICA BETWEEN DECEMBER AND JANUARY
A dust storm, also called a sandstorm, is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Fine particles are transported by saltation and suspension, a process that moves soil from one place and deposits it in another (Wikipedia). Although Brazil is not an arid country, dust storms have been recorded more frequently in recent decades. The phenomenon intensified especially after the severe drought of 2022, when large areas of São Paulo, Mato Grosso do Sul, and Minas Gerais were affected. Cities such as Três Lagos (MS, Oct 2021, Último Segundo), Morro Agudo (SP, Oct 21, Climatempo), Ribeirão Preto (SP, Sept 2021, YT) and Franca (SP, Sept 2021, YT), were among those impacted by these storms.
SOME SAND STORMS IN BRAZIL (Morro Agudo (SP, Oct 21, SEE) | Três Lagos (MS), Oct 21, SEE| Franca (SP), Set 21, VIDEO)
Massive dust emitted from Sahara desert (Sahara/Amazonia sand winds) is carried by trade winds across the tropical Atlantic Ocean, reaching the Amazon Rainforest and Caribbean Sea. On a basis of the 8-year average, 179M t of dust leaves the coast of North Africa and is transported across Atlantic Ocean, of which 102, 20, and 28 Tg of dust is deposited into the tropical Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Amazon Rainforest, respectively. The 28M t of dust provides about 22K t of phosphorus to Amazon Rainforest yearly that replenishes the leak of this plant-essential nutrient by rains and flooding, suggesting an important role of Saharan dust in maintaining the productivity of Amazon rainforest on timescales of decades or centuries (Yu, H. et al., American Geophysical Union, 2015).
Lightning in New World are centered in NW South America (Ecuador to Venezuela) and Chaco region from Argentina to Paraguay. In Brazil, the hottest point is Mato Grosso do Sul region. Worldwide, central Africa is the highest frequency of lightnig worldwide. The second world’s greatest extent for a single lightning flash is a single flash that covered a horizontal distance of 709 ± 8 km across parts of southern Brazil on 31 October 2018 (WHO).
WORLD MAP OF LIGHTNING ACTIVITY BETWENN 1995 TO 2002 (NASA) AND MAP OF THE SECOND MEGAFLASH LIGHTNING EVE RECORDED (PUBLIC/WMO)
12 VEGETATION MOSAIC
A common discussion in geography is the analysis of a region's vegetation. Here, we focus on ecoregions — large areas of land or water that contain a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions (WWF). For a comprehensive map of terrestrial and marine ecoregions, visit images.takeshape, and for an official reference, see the article published in BioScience (2017, SEE).
BRAZILIAN VEGETATION FORMATIONS
The world has approximately 40,5 M km² of forests, with about 1/5 of this area in South America and 1/8 in Brazil, which covers 4,966,200 km², making it the 3rd largest forest cover globally, primarily in the Atlantic Coast and Amazon regions (Wikipedia). According to this reference, between 1990 and 2020, Brazil lost 922,780 km² of forests, approximately 1/6 of its total forest cover. Brazil also boasts the largest number of tree species globally, with 8,715 ones, and leads in endemic tree species, with 4,226 (BGCI). The tallest tree in Brazil and South America is Dinizia excelsa Ducke (Fabaceae), which reaches an astonishing 88.5 m in height by a specimen located in a remote area of the Paru State Forest in Pará state, is the 10th tallest tree in the world, the second tallest in the tropical region, the largest non-Malvid angiosperm, and the largest angiosperm in the New World (Siderasis).
FOREST COVER DENSITY IN SOUTH AMERICA AND GLOBAL FOREST AREA AND DIVERSITY DATA
13 BIODIVERSITY
Brazil is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, a situation largely favored by the fact that it has the largest area in the tropical zone of the entire planet. The following is a general synopsis of the national diversity in the two most notorious groups: vascular plants and animals.
VASCULAR PLANTS
According to the VPA, as of September 22, 2022, Brazil had 34,780 spp. of vascular plants, including 1,206 of Monilophytes (3ª diversity worldwide), following China (2,124) and Colombia (1,428). Additionally, Brazil hosts 171 spp. of Lycophytes, 24 of Gymnosperms, and 33,379 of Angiosperms, making it the most diverse country for angiosperms (SEE).
All 33,379 species of Brazilian angiosperms are distributed across 2,744 genera and 225 families. The country has 358 endemic genera (SEE), ranking second globally (Intreasures), and boasts the highest number of endemic tree species, with 4,226 species (BGCI). Furthermore, Brazil is home to 133 species of carnivorous plants, 61 species of mycoheterotrophs, 304 species of parasitic plants, and six species of seagrasses (Siderasis). Additionally, Brazil ranks third worldwide in Cactaceae diversity (258) and Orchidaceae (2,733) while holding the largest global diversity of Arecaceae (palms), with 266 species across 36 genera (VPA, SEE).
Miconia (Ruiz & Pav.) has 577 spp. in Brazil, being the highest number of species of a single genus in any New World country and fifth worldwide, after Erica in South Africa (~ 660), Astragalus in Iran (~ 900), Eucalyptus (~700) and Acacia (~1100) in Australia (Rankings). The largest genus endemic to Brazil is Neoregelia (Bromeliaceae), with 114 spp., making it the largest endemic genus in the New World and the largest outside South Africa and Australia (Rankings).
Brazil's flora, despite their diversity, does not include some extremely remarkable plant types, such as order Fagales (mainly in northern Hemisphere and Australia, also present in Andes and tropical Africa), true cushions (high diverse in cold Andes), gypsophilous plants (mainly from N Mexico and Iberic Peninsula), Astragalus (the largest genus of angiosperms), holoparasitic Orobanchaceae (northern Hemisphere to tropical Africa and Andes), Pelliciera mangrove (Pacific and Atlantic coast of America Central to Colombia), carnivorous Pinguicula (northern Hemisphere to Andes), mycoheterotrophic Ericaceae (northern Hemisphere to Colombia), succulent Asclepiadoideae (Africa to tropical Asia) or Crassulaceae (mainly Mexico and South Africa), among many others.
Three plant individuals stand out in Brazil. The first [1] is a specimen of Dinizia excelsa Ducke, located in northern Pará near the border with Amapá (G1), recognized as the tallest tree ever documented in Brazil with 88.3m tall (TRT World), making the species the 11th tallest known worldwide (Wikipedia), the tallest non-Malvid angiosperm known and tallest angiosperm in the New World. The second [2] is a cashew tree in Cajueiro da Praia, in the state of Piauí, which spreads over approximately 8,800 m², likely the largest living organism in Brazil (Cidade Verde, personal conclusion) — although it does not rival some of the largest organisms on Earth. The largest single living organism based on area is a specimen of seagrass Posidonia australis Joseph H. located in Shark Bay off Western Australia, covering approximately 200 km². Also claims the title of largest organism a specimen of Armillaria ostoya (Romagnesi) Herink (1973) honey mushroom growing in the Malheur National Forest of Oregon, USA, which occupies 965 ha (being world's largest fungus). Another record-breaking clonal plant is Pando, a network of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) growing in the Wasatch Mountains of Utah, USA, which is considered the world's most massive plant, with 47,000 individual stems, covering 43 ha and weighing an estimated 6,000 t (Guinness Book). The third [3] is a xylopodic individual of Jacaranda decurrens Cham. (Bignoniaceae) from Itutinga, in southern Minas Gerais, estimated to be 3,801 years old, making it probably the oldest living organism in Brazil and the oldest angiosperm in America Latina, suprassing a individual of Fitzroya cupressoides (Mol.) Johnst. (Cupressaceae) with an age of 3,622 years from Chile (Alves, RJV et al., Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, 2013). The oldest known organism is likely a specimen of Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile located near the Balearic Islands in Spain (WayBack Machine).
ANIMAL DIVERSITY
Taxonomically, only three animal phyla have no confirmed records in the country — Dicyemida, Orthonectida, and Cycliophora (Brazilian Metazoa), all of which are endoparasites of marine invertebrates. With this, Brazil ranks as the third most diverse nation in terms of animal phyla, harboring representatives of 31 phyla. It is surpassed only by the United States (32) and Spain (32, lacking Orthonectida and Onychophora), Italy and France (32 both each, both missing Micrognathozoa and Onychophora), and tied with Mexico (lacking Micrognathozoa, Orthonectida, and Cycliophora) and Japan (which lacks Micrognathozoa, Onychophora, and Cycliophora). Of 145 canonic lineages in Metazoa, there are 21, including three whole phyla (marine parasitics Dicyemida, Orthonectida and Cycliophora), never collected in Brazil, and 124 presents. Almost a of these strains are marine and their collections are concentrated in North America and Europe, and only few occur on land or fresh water (e.g. Polypodizoa and Peripatopsidae).
Brazil has 127,739 spp. of animals in 27,117 genera, these belonging to 3,495 families at 30 phylla (SEE). 3/4 of the animals in Brazil are in Insecta, distributed in 15,800 genera and 693 families, representing 1/13 of the world's animal diversity. Some numbers in Brazil includes 91,465 Insecta, 9,093 Arachnida, 4,674 Actinopteri, 2,737 Gastropoda, 1,712 breed birds, 1,675 Neodermata and 1,571 Nematoda, among others. Coast of Brazil includes 1,837 Gastropoda, 1,197 Annelida, 769 Cnidaria, 545 sponges, 347 Echinodermata and 330 Bryozoa. Brazilian freshwaters includes 3,502 fishes, 117 Gastropoda, 116 Bivavia, 61 Tardigrada, 53 sponges, 16 Bryozoa and 7 Cnidaria, among others.
Brazil has 866 troglobic species in November 15, 2025 (exclusive and adapted to caves, SEE), being the 2th richest in the world outside Europe, after U.S.A., in several groups, being one of the few countries with species in some phyla, such as Porifera and Onychophora, in addition to other smaller groups, such as Bivalvia.
Chordata (vertebrates) are the most emblematic groups to discuss fauna. Brazil has the greatest diversity of freshwater Actinopteri (3,631) and Amphibia (1,245), 2nd for mammals (778), 3rd for breeding birds (1,742), but only 21st for marine fish (1,241), by Brazilian Metazoa (SEE) in May, 2025. For endemic species in these groups, Brazil also has the greatest diversity in Actinopteri (2,378) and amphibians (862), 3rd for birds (263) and mammals (258), 5th for reptiles (paraphyletic, 426), and 10th for marine fish (107), by Intreasures (SEE) in March 05, 2025. Brazil is the world's hotspot for miniaturized vertebrates, with the smallest members in continental New World of Squamata (Coleodactyus natalensis) and freshwater Actinopteri (Leptophylipnion fittkaui, L. pusillus) from across continental America being endemic to Brazil (Almanaque Z). Brachycephalus dacnis Toledo, Botelho, Carrasco-Medina, Gray, Ernetti, Gama, Lyra, Blackburn, Nunes, and Muscat, 2024 from coastal forests from NE São Paulo and SW Rio de Janeiro states in SE Brazil is among the smallest known vertebrate worldwide (Toledo et al., PeerJ, 2024).
18 animal families are endemic to Brazil, the 8th amount worldwide: Tiguassuidae (1/1, Annelida Clitellata), Arecoidae (1/1, Clitellata), Brazilobatidae (1/1, Acari Sarcoptiformes), Brasileirinidae (1/2, Isopoda), Magnovidae (1/1, Amphipoda), Dobrodesmidae (1/1, Diplopoda), Jurasaidae (2/5, Coleoptera), Melanemerellidae (1/1, Ephemeroptera), Bahiaxenidae (1/1, Strepsiptera), Bouchardiidae (1/1, Brachiopoda), Jebramellidae (1/1, Bryozoa), Tapajosellidae (1/1, Bryozoa), Cyclorhamphidae (3/37, Amphibia), Neblinaphrynidae (1/2, Amphibia), Tarumaniidae (1/1, Actinopteri, freshwater), Spintherobolidae (2/5, Actinopteri, freshwater), Euryleptididae (1/1, Platyhelminthes) and Braunotrematidae (1/1, Platyhelminthes).
Ecologically, Brazil has no true hibernators, largely because it is a tropical country without harsh winters. It also lacks troglobitic fauna associated with anchialine caves, gypsum caves, or lava tubes, as these environments do not occur in Brazil.
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| Mussimilia brasiliensis Verrill, 1868 (Cnidaria, endemic to coast of Bahia state) | Potiicoara brasiliensis Pires, 1987, 1987 (Spelaeogriphidae, troglobic in MT/MS states) | Neoceroplatus betaryiensis Falaschi, Johnson & Stevani, 2019 (Keroplatidae, known only São Paulo state, unique fungus-gnath in Neotropics | Osedax nataliae Gularte, Sumida, Bergamo & Rouse, 2024 (Annelida, knwon from 500m deep seas off coast of São Paulo state) | Systrophiidae (troglobic snail, endemic to Pará state) | Brachycephalus pombali Alves, Ribeiro, Haddad, and Reis, 2006 (Anura, endemic to Paraná state) | Panthera onca L. (Mammalia, Carnivora). | ||||||||||||||
Remarkably, in two emblematic groups for tropical landscapes, Brazil has the greatest known diversity: Primates (19/102 spp., 4 genera endemic genera, all in Atlantic Forest, Mico as a large near endemic genera, and almost all Primate genera in New World except Oedipomidas from Panama to Colombia) and Psittacidae (parrots, 21/83 spp., with three endemic genera) after Brazilian Metazoa (SEE).
REMARKABLE ECOSYSTEMS
In marine biodiversity, rhodolith beds, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, and coralline algal reefs are the world’s four largest macrophyte-dominated benthic communities (Amado-Filho et al., Plos One, 2012). All of them occur in Brazil, with a high concentration from southern Bahia to Rio de Janeiro State, where all four are found simultaneously.
Brazil has the largest know latitudinal occurrence of rhodolith beds (communities dominated by free living, calcareous, non-geniculate coralline algae) in World, from 2°N to 25°S, covering an extension of 4,000 km from Pará down to Rio de Janeiro states (Amado-Filho & Pereira-Filho, Braz. J. Pharmacogn., 2012).
Brazilian coral reefs are one of the most prominent marine ecosystems, comprising the largest and the richest area of reefs in the entire southwestern Atlantic Ocean. These reefs are spread over 3,000 km along the Brazilian coast, from 0º50'S to 18º00'S, and they can be generally divided into the following four main reef regions: the northern region, the reefs of the northeastern coast, the reefs of the eastern coast and the reef ecosystems of the oceanic islands; however, certain coral species are also found on the southeastern and southern coasts of Brazil. These reefs are composed of shallow bank reefs attached to the coast, fringing reefs bordering island shores, coral knolls, patch reefs, isolated bank reefs of different forms and sizes off the coast, and coral pinnacles known as the Brazilian 'chapeirões' (Leão, Z.M.A.N. et al., Brazilian Journal of Oceanography, 2016).
The endemic Brazilian deep kelp Laminaria abyssalis A.B.Joly & E.C.Oliveira is strongly associated with rhodolith beds along its range, found in a small portion of the Brazilian coast, in tropical latitudes, where suitable conditions for cool-water microhabitats exist, extending over 33,000 km², in depths ranging from 40 to 120 m, temperatures ranging from 15°C to 19°C, low light intensity (5-8 m Em-1 s-1) and grows over a substrate formed by nodules of calcareous algae (rhodolith beds), from Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states (Restore Seas).
Brazil contains approximately 200 km² of seagrass meadows, primarily located near coral reefs and coastal lagoons from the state of Piauí to Rio Grande do Sul. These meadows are composed of six species, whose distribution, abundance, and dynamics are strongly shaped by physical drivers, particularly coastal geomorphology, oceanographic conditions, and regional climate and hydrology. The most remarkable populations occur in the Piauí–Ceará region, northeastern Ceará, the coast of Pernambuco, the Abrolhos Bank, the Araruama Lagoon in Rio de Janeiro, and the Patos Lagoon estuary in Rio Grande do Sul (Copertino, MS et al, Brazilian Journal of Oceanography, 2016).
CHEMOSYNTHETIC SITES (●), KELPS (■ ∷), REEF CORALS (■ ∷), RHODOLITHS (❏ ∷), SEAGRASS MEADOWS (■ ∷), AND SEA CAVES (●) IN BRAZIL
Chemosynthetic ecosystems are fueled by reduced compounds (CH4 and/or H2S), which are important for the chemosynthetic production by microbiota. They comprise hydrothermal vents (absents in Brazil), cold seeps, sulfide-rich seeps, methane-rich seeps, and large organic 'islands' or patches, such as whale skeletons and wood falls (a high accurate map until date of publication is available in German et al., Plos One, 2011). All chemosynthetics Brazilian habitats runs in coast from Espírito Santo to Rio Grande do Sul states (Sumida et al., Springer, 2020, pg. 109): one cold seep off Rio Grande do Sul state at c. 1,300 m depth (details in Leeuwenhoek, Springer, 2017); one disconected asphalt/oil sheep off Espírito Santo and Rio de Janeiro states (details in Freite et al., Deep Sea Research article 1, 2017, and Fujikura et al., Deep Sea Research article 2, 2017); and a natural whale falls off Santa Catarina state (details in Sumida et al., Scientific Reports, 2016).
Only 7 localities in Brazil are known to have submarine caves, and all of them are still poorly studied. On Trindade Island, at least one submarine cave has been identified, and there is considerable potential for others to be found (Moraes, FLP et al, Revista Brasileira de Espeleologia, 2025). In Tamandaré municipality, Pernambuco state, are the only six officially recognized and validated so far (G1 | Google Maps). Off Rio de Janeiro city, there is a semi-submerged cave called 'Buff', located on Filhote da Redonda Island. Although underwater photographs show a rich benthic fauna inside, there are no published descriptions of its benthic communities so far. In Arraial do Cabo, a semi-submerged cave named 'Gruta Azul' is a famous touristic attraction. Fifteen sponge species were reported from this cave, mostly of the class Calcarea and a few Demospongiae. There are other submarine caves in Arraial do Cabo, such as 'Gruta da Camarinha' and 'Buraco dos Meros', but their benthic communities remain unexplored. On the Abrolhos Archipelago, there is a large submerged cave on Siriba Island, from which a single sponge species has been reported so far. Furthermore, on the Rocas Atoll, there are two large tunnels (named 'Fendas 1 and 2') colonized by a rich sponge community, with 17 sponge species reported to date. Finally, on the Fernando de Noronha Archipelago there are many submarine caves and tunnels, which are still poorly known (Guilherme Muricy et al, Journal Marine Science Engineering, 2024).
UNKNOWN HABITATS
Several biologically significant environments are absent from Brazilian territory. Among them are hydrothermal vents, the deep-sea hot springs associated with submarine volcanism; chemoautotrophic caves, which harbor isolated systems sustained by non-conventional geochemical energy sources rather than sunlight; and anchialine caves, characterized by stratified layers of freshwater and seawater and the unique faunas adapted to these mixed subterranean aquatic systems (Brazil in Line/Missing Elements).